what were the chief phases by which europe began its rise to core status in the modern world?

History of Europe by menstruation

Early modern Europe, also referred to as the post-medieval period, is the period of European history between the cease of the Middle Ages and the start of the Industrial Revolution, roughly the late 15th century to the belatedly 18th century. Historians variously mark the beginning of the early modern menstruation with the invention of moveable blazon press in the 1450s, the Autumn of Constantinople and stop of the Hundred Years' War in 1453, the terminate of the Wars of the Roses in 1485, the beginning of the High Renaissance in Italy in the 1490s, the end of the Reconquista and subsequent voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas in 1492, or the get-go of the Protestant Reformation in 1517. The precise dates of its stop bespeak also vary and are usually linked with either the get-go of the French Revolution in 1789 or with the more vaguely defined beginning of the Industrial Revolution in tardily 18th century England.

Some of the more notable trends and events of the early modern menses included the Reformation and the religious conflicts it provoked (including the French Wars of Religion and the Thirty Years' State of war), the rise of capitalism and modern nation states, widespread witch hunts and European colonization of the Americas.

Characteristics [edit]

The modernistic catamenia was characterized by profound changes in many realms of homo endeavor. Among the nearly important include the development of science every bit a formalized practice, increasingly rapid technological progress, and the institution of secularized civic politics, police force courts and the nation country. Capitalist economies began to develop in a nascent class, starting time in the northern Italian republics such equally Genoa and Venice as well equally in the cities of the Depression Countries, and later in France, Frg and England. The early modernistic period also saw the rise and dominance of the economical theory of mercantilism. Equally such, the early modern period is oftentimes associated with the turn down and eventual disappearance (at least in Western Europe) of feudalism and serfdom. The Protestant Reformation greatly altered the religious balance of Christendom, creating a formidable new opposition to the dominance of the Catholic Church, especially in Northern Europe. The early on modern period too witnessed the circumnavigation of the Earth and the establishment of regular European contact with the Americas and Southward and East asia. The ensuing ascension of global systems of international economic, cultural and intellectual exchange played an of import role in the development of commercialism and represents the earliest phase of globalization.

Periodization [edit]

Regardless of the precise dates used to define its get-go and end points, the early modern menstruation is generally agreed to take comprised the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution, and the Enlightenment. Every bit such, historians have attributed a number of fundamental changes to the menses, notably the increasingly rapid progress of scientific discipline and engineering science, the secularization of politics, and the diminution of the absolute potency of the Roman Catholic Church too every bit the lessening of the influence of all faiths upon national governments. Many historians have identified the early modern menstruum as the epoch in which individuals began to remember of themselves every bit belonging to a national polity—a notable break from medieval modes of cocky-identification, which had been largely based upon religion (belonging to a universal Christendom), linguistic communication, or feudal allegiance (belonging to the manor or extended household of a particular magnate or lord).

The offset of the early on mod period is non clear-cut, but is generally accustomed to be in the late 15th century or early 16th century. Pregnant dates in this transitional phase from medieval to early modern Europe can be noted:

1450

The invention of the first European movable type printing process by Johannes Gutenberg, a device that fundamentally changed the circulation of information. Movable type, which immune individual characters to be bundled to form words and which is an invention split from the printing press, had been invented earlier in China.

1453

The conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans signalled the end of the Byzantine empire; the Battle of Castillon concluded the Hundred Years' War.

1485

The last Plantagenet king of England, Richard III, was killed at Bosworth and the medieval civil wars of aristocratic factions gave way to early mod Tudor monarchy, in the person of Henry Seven.

1492

The outset documented European voyage to the Americas past the Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus; the end of the Reconquista, with the final expulsion of the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula; the Spanish regime expels the Jews.

1494

French male monarch Charles 8 invaded Italy, drastically altering the status quo and commencement a serial of wars which would punctuate the Italian Renaissance.

1513

Starting time formulation of modern politics with the publication of Machiavelli's The Prince.

1517

The Reformation begins with Martin Luther nailing his ninety-five theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg, Germany.

1526

Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor gains the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary.

1545

The Quango of Trent begins Counter-Reformation and marks the terminate of the medieval Roman Catholic Church.^[1] ^[2]

The cease date of the early on mod flow is variously associated with the Industrial Revolution, which began in U.k. in near 1750, or the get-go of the French Revolution in 1789, which drastically transformed the state of European politics and ushered in the Napoleonic Era and modern Europe.

The role of nobles in the Feudal Organization had yielded to the notion of the Divine Right of Kings during the Middle Ages (in fact, this consolidation of power from the land-owning nobles to the titular monarchs was ane of the almost prominent themes of the Center Ages). Among the most notable political changes included the abolition of serfdom and the crystallization of kingdoms into nation-states. Perhaps even more significantly, with the advent of the Reformation, the notion of Christendom equally a unified political entity was destroyed. Many kings and rulers used this radical shift in the agreement of the globe to further consolidate their sovereignty over their territories. For example, many of the Germanic states (as well equally English language Reformation) converted to Protestantism in an effort to slip out of the grasp of the Pope.

The intellectual developments of the period included the creation of the economic theory of mercantilism and the publication of enduringly influential works of political and social philosophy, such as Machiavelli's The Prince (1513) and Thomas More'south Utopia (1515).

Reformation [edit]

The Protestant Reformation was a reform-oriented schism from the Roman Catholic Church building initiated past Martin Luther and connected by John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other early Protestant Reformers. Information technology is typically dated from 1517, lasting until the end of the Thirty Years' State of war (1618-1648) with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. It was launched on 31 Oct 1517 past Martin Luther, who posted his 95 Theses criticizing the practice of indulgences to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany, ordinarily used to post notices to the University community. Information technology was very widely publicized across Europe and caught burn down. Luther began past criticizing the auction of indulgences, insisting that the Pope had no authority over purgatory and that the Catholic doctrine of the merits of the saints had no foundation in the gospel. The Protestant position, nevertheless, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura and sola fide.

The Reformation ended in division and the establishment of new church movements. The iv most important traditions to sally directly from the Reformation were Lutheranism, the Reformed (as well chosen Calvinist or Presbyterian) tradition, Anglicanism, and the Anabaptists. Subsequent Protestant churches by and large trace their roots back to these initial four schools of the Reformation. Information technology likewise led to the Catholic or Counter Reformation within the Roman Cosmic Church through a variety of new spiritual movements, reforms of religious communities, the founding of seminaries, the clarification of Catholic theology as well as structural changes in the institution of the Church.^[3]

The largest Protestant groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists. Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Federal republic of germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland.^[4]

The initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The availability of the printing printing provided the ways for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The cadre motivation behind the Reformation was theological, though many other factors played a part, including the ascent of nationalism, the Western Schism that eroded faith in the Papacy, the perceived corruption of the Roman Curia, the impact of humanism, and the new learning of the Renaissance that questioned much traditional thought.^[5]

There were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known every bit the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements.^[vi]

The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Quango of Trent. Much work in contesting Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of well-nigh of Ireland, came under the influence of Protestantism. Southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Primal Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years' War, which left information technology devastated.^[7]

Church building of England [edit]

Henry Eight broke England'south ties with the Catholic Church building, becoming the sole caput of the English Church.

The Reformation reshaped the Church of England decisively subsequently 1547. The separation of the Church of England (or Anglican Church building) from Rome nether Henry VIII, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537, brought England aslope this wide Reformation motility; notwithstanding, religious changes in the English language national church building proceeded more than conservatively than elsewhere in Europe. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for decades, betwixt sympathies for ancient Cosmic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing, within the context of robustly Protestant doctrine, a tradition considered a eye way (via media) between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions.^[8]

Consequences of the Protestant Reformation [edit]

The following outcomes of the Protestant Reformation regarding man capital formation, the Protestant ethic, economic development, governance, and "nighttime" outcomes have been identified past scholars.^[nine]

Historiography [edit]

Margaret C. Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the dandy leaders and also the theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in depth. However, the rise of the new social history in the 1960s wait at history from the bottom up, not from the superlative downwards. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at big. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation was and so seen every bit a vast cultural upheaval, a social and pop movement and textured and rich because of its diversity."^[ten]

Age of Enlightenment [edit]

The Age of Enlightenment refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is oftentimes thought of as part of a menstruum which includes the Age of Reason. The term as well more specifically refers to a historical intellectual movement, The Enlightenment. This motility advocated rationality equally a means to establish an authoritative organisation of aesthetics, ideals, and logic. The intellectual leaders of this movement regarded themselves as a courageous elite, and regarded their purpose as one of leading the world toward progress and out of a long menstruum of hundred-to-one tradition, total of irrationality, superstition, and tyranny, which they believed began during a historical period they called the Dark Ages. This movement too provided a framework for the American and French Revolutions, the Latin American independence movement, and the Smoothen–Lithuanian Commonwealth Constitution of May 3, and also led to the rise of liberalism and the birth of socialism and communism.^[11] It is matched by the high bizarre and classical eras in music, and the neo-classical catamenia in the arts, and receives contemporary application in the unity of science move which includes logical positivism.

Deviation betwixt 'early modern' and the Renaissance [edit]

The expression "early modern" is sometimes used as a substitute for the term Renaissance, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "Renaissance" is properly used in relation to a various series of cultural developments; which occurred over several hundred years in many different parts of Europe—peculiarly central and northern Italy—and span the transition from late Medieval civilization and the opening of the early modern period.

The term early modern is about often practical to Europe, and its overseas empire. Notwithstanding, it has also been employed in the history of the Ottoman Empire. In the historiography of Japan, the Edo period from 1590 to 1868 is also sometimes referred to as the early on modern flow.

Affairs and warfare [edit]

Subsequently the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Europe's borders were largely stable. 1708 map by Herman Moll

The 17th century saw very petty peace in Europe – major wars were fought in 95 years (every yr except 1610, 1669 to 1671, and 1680 to 1682.)^[12] The wars were unusually ugly. Europe in the late 17th century, 1648 to 1700, was an age of peachy intellectual, scientific, artistic and cultural achievement. Historian Frederick Nussbaum says it was:

prolific in genius, in mutual sense, and in organizing ability. It could properly accept been expected that intelligence, comprehension and loftier purpose would be practical to the control of human relations in general and to the relations between states and peoples in particular. The fact was almost completely opposite. It was a catamenia of marked unintelligence, immorality and frivolity in the conduct of international relations, marked by wars undertaken for dimly conceived purposes, waged with the utmost brutality and conducted by reckless betrayals of allies.^[13]

The worst came during the Xxx Years' War, 1618-1648, which had an extremely negative affect on the noncombatant population of Germany and surrounding areas, with massive loss of life and disruption of the economy and society.

Thirty Years' State of war: 1618–1648 [edit]

The Reformation led to a series of religious wars that culminated in the Thirty Years' State of war (1618–1648), which devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and twoscore% of its entire population.^[14] Roman Cosmic House of Habsburg and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Frg, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and French republic. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the Crown of Bohemia, Hungary, Slovene Lands, the Spanish Netherlands and much of Frg and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Roman Cosmic Church. Some historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Roman Catholic France allied itself with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty. For the first time since the days of Martin Luther, political and national convictions once more outweighed religious convictions in Europe.

Two main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Xxx Years' War, were:

All parties would now recognise the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, past which each prince would take the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options beingness Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of cuius regio, eius religio).
Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church building were guaranteed the right to do their faith in public during allotted hours and in individual at their will.

The treaty also finer ended the Papacy'south pan-European political power. Pope Innocent X alleged the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bull Zelo Domus Dei. European sovereigns, Roman Cosmic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.^[xv]

Scholars taking a "realist" perspective on wars and diplomacy have emphasized the Peace of Westphalia (1648) as a dividing line. It ended the Thirty Years War (1618-1648), where faith and ideology had been powerful motivating forces for warfare. Westphalia, in the realist view, ushered in a new international system of sovereign states of roughly equal strength, dedicated not to ideology or religion simply to enhance status, and territorial gains. The Catholic Church building, for case, no longer devoted its energies to the very difficult task of reclaiming dioceses lost to Protestantism, only to build large-calibration missions in overseas colonial possessions that could convert the natives past the thousands Using devoted members of society such as the Jesuits.^[16] According to Hamish Scott, the realist model assumes that "foreign policies were guided entirely by "Realpolitik," by the resulting struggle for resources and, eventually, by the search for what became known equally a 'residuum of power.'^[17]

Diplomacy before 1700 was not well developed, and chances to avoid wars were also frequently squandered. In England, for case, King Charles Ii paid little attention to diplomacy, which proved disastrous. During the Dutch war of 1665-67, England had no diplomats stationed in Denmark or Sweden. When King Charles realized he needed them as allies, he sent special missions that were uninformed about local political, war machine, and diplomatic situations, and were ignorant of personalities and political factionalism. Ignorance produced a series of blunders that ruined their efforts to find allies.^[18] King Louis XIV of France, by contrast, developed the most sophisticated diplomatic service, with permanent ambassadors and bottom ministers in major and small capitals, all preparing steady streams of information and communication to Paris. Diplomacy became a career that proved highly attractive to rich senior aristocrats who enjoyed very high society at royal courts, especially because they carried the status of the most powerful nation in Europe. Increasingly, other nations copied the French model; French became the language of diplomacy, replacing Latin.^[19] Past 1700, the British and the Dutch, with modest land armies, large navies, and big treasuries, used astute affairs to build alliances, subsidizing as needed country powers to fight on their side, or every bit in the example of the Hessians, hiring regiments of soldiers from mercenary princes in small-scale countries.^[twenty] The balance of power was very delicately calculated, then that winning a battle here was worth the slice of territory at that place, with no regard to the wishes of the inhabitants. Important peacemaking conferences at Utrecht (1713), Vienna (1738), Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) and Paris (1763) had a cheerful, cynical, game-similar atmosphere in which professional diplomats cashed in victories like casino chips in exchange for territory.^[21]

Major states [edit]

Holy Roman Empire [edit]

In 1512, the Holy Roman Empire changed its name to Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. The Habsburg House of Austria held the position of Holy Roman Emperors since the mid-1400s and for the unabridged Early modern period. Despite the lack of a centralized political structure in a period in which national monarchies were emerging, the Habsburg Emperors of the Early on modernistic period came close to form a universal monarchy in Western Europe.

The Habsburgs expanded their control within and outside the Holy Roman Empire as a consequence of the dynastic policy pursued past Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. Maximilian I married Mary of Burgundy, thus bringing the Burgundian Netherlands into the Habsburg inheritance. Their son, Philip the Handsome, married Joanna the Mad of Kingdom of spain (daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile). Charles 5, Holy Roman Emperor (son of Philip and Joanna) inherited the Habsburg Netherlands in 1506, Habsburg Spain and its territories in 1516, and Habsburg Republic of austria in 1519.

The principal opponents of the Habsburg Empire were the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of French republic. The Habsburgs clashed with France in a series of Italian wars. The Battle of Pavia (1525) initiated the Habsburg primacy in Italy and the replacement of France as the main European power. Nevertheless, religious wars forced Charles V to abdicate in 1556 and split the Habsburg possessions between Espana and Republic of austria. The next Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I completed the Quango of Trent and maintained Frg at peace until the 30 Years' War (1618-1648). The Habsburgs controlled the elective monarchies of Hungary and Bohemia also, and eventually turned these states into hereditary domains.

Espana [edit]

In 1492 the Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon funded Christopher Columbus's program to sail west to reach the Indies by crossing the Atlantic. He landed on a continent uncharted past Europeans and seen as a new world, the Americas. To prevent conflict between Portugal and Castile (the crown nether which Columbus made the voyage), the Treaty of Tordesillas was signed dividing the world into two regions of exploration, where each had sectional rights to claim newly discovered lands.^[22]

The structure of the Castilian Empire was established under the Spanish Habsburgs (1516–1700) and under the Spanish Bourbon monarchs, the empire was brought under greater crown command and increased its revenues from the Indies.^[23] ^[24] The crown's authority in The Indies was enlarged by the papal grant of powers of patronage, giving information technology power in the religious sphere.^[25] ^[26] ^[27]

Under Philip Ii of Spain, Spain, rather than the Habsburg empire, was identified as a more powerful nation than French republic and England globally. Furthermore, despite attacks from other European states, Kingdom of spain retained its position of dominance with apparent ease. Spain controlled the Netherlands until the Dutch defection, and important states in southern Italy. The castilian claims to Naples and Sicily dated back to the 15th century, but had been marred by rival claims until the mid-16th century and the dominion of Philip II. There would exist no Italian revolts against Spanish rule until 1647. The death of the Ottoman emperor Suleiman the Magnificent in 1566 and the naval victory over the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 cemented the status of Spain as a superpower in Europe and the world. The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies of the Castilian Monarch in the Americas, Asia (Spanish Philippines), Europe and some territories in Africa and Oceania.

France [edit]

The Ancien Régime (French for "old regime") was the political and social system of the Kingdom of France from almost 1450 until the French Revolution that started in 1789.^[28] The Ancien Régime was ruled by the late Valois and Bourbon dynasties. Much of the medieval political centralization of France had been lost in the Hundred Years' War, and the Valois Dynasty's attempts at re-establishing control over the scattered political centres of the land were hindered past the Huguenot Wars (or Wars of Religion). Much of the reigns of Henry IV, Louis XIII and the early years of Louis Fourteen were focused on authoritative centralisation. Despite, however, the notion of "absolute monarchy" (typified past the king'south correct to result lettres de cachet) and the efforts by the kings to create a centralized state, Ancien Régime France remained a land of systemic irregularities: authoritative (including taxation), legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions and prerogatives frequently overlapped, while the French dignity struggled to maintain their own rights in the matters of local government and justice, and powerful internal conflicts (like the Fronde) protested against this centralization.^[29]

The need for centralization in this menstruum was directly linked to the question of royal finances and the ability to wage war. The internal conflicts and dynastic crises of the 16th and 17th centuries (the Huguenot Wars between Catholics and Protestants and the Habsburg's internal family conflict) and the territorial expansion of France in the 17th century demanded great sums which needed to exist raised through taxes, such every bit the land tax ( taille ) and the tax on salt ( gabelle ) and past contributions of men and service from the nobility. The key to this centralization was the replacing of personal patronage systems organized around the male monarch and other nobles by institutional systems around the state.^[30] The creation of intendants—representatives of royal power in the provinces—did much to undermine local command by regional nobles. The same was truthful of the greater reliance shown by the royal court on the "noblesse de robe" every bit judges and royal counselors. The creation of regional parlements had initially the same goal of facilitating the introduction of royal power into newly assimilated territories, but as the parlements gained in self-balls, they began to be sources of disunity.^[31]

England [edit]

Elizabeth ushers in Peace and Plenty. Detail from The Family of Henry Eight: An Allegory of the Tudor Succession, c. 1572, attributed to Lucas de Heere.

This period refers to England 1558–1603. The Elizabethan Era is the period associated with the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and was a golden age in English language cultural history. Information technology was the height of the English language Renaissance, and saw the flowering of English language literature and poesy. This was also the fourth dimension during which Elizabethan theatre grew. William Shakespeare, among others, composed highly innovative and powerful plays. It was an age of expansion and exploration abroad. At abode the Protestant Reformation was established and successfully defended against the Catholic powers of Spain and France.^[32]

The Jacobean era was the reign James I of England (1603–1625). Overseas exploration and establishment of trading factories sped upward, with the first permanent settlements in Due north America at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, in Newfoundland in 1610, and at Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620. 1 king now ruled England and Scotland; the latter was fully absorbed by the Acts of Matrimony 1707.^[33]

The tumultuous Caroline era was the reign of Rex Charles I (1625–1645), followed past his beheading by Oliver Cromwell's regime in 1649 . The Caroline era was dominated past the growing religious, political, and social conflict between the Male monarch and his supporters, termed the Royalist party, and the Puritan opposition that evolved in response to particular aspects of Charles' rule. The colonization of North America continued apace, with new colonies in Maryland (1634), Connecticut (1635), and Rhode Isle (1636).^[34]

Papacy [edit]

The papacy continued to exercise significant diplomatic influence during the Early modern period. The Popes were frequently assembling Holy Leagues to assert Catholic supremacy in Europe. During the Renaissance, Julius Two and Paul III were largely involved in the Italian Wars and worked to preserve their primacy amongst the Italian princes. During the counter-reformation, the Papacy supported catholic powers and factions all over Europe. Pope Pius 5 assembled the Catholic coalition that won the Boxing of Lepanto against the Turks. Pope Sixtus V sided with the catholics during the French wars of organized religion. Worldwide religious missions, such equally the Jesuit Prc mission, were established past Pope Gregory XIII. Gregory Thirteen is also responsible for the institution of the Gregorian calendar. Following the Peace of Westphalia and the birth of nation-states, Papal claims to universal dominance came effectively to an end.

Other political powers [edit]

Ottoman Empire
Early Modern Italy
- Papal States
- Democracy of Florence, Duchy of Florence, M Duchy of Tuscany
- Democracy of Venice
- Duchy of Milan
- Republic of Genoa
- Kingdom of Naples
Kingdom of Portugal
Dutch Republic
Holy Roman Empire
- Kingdom of Bohemia (Czech)
- Habsburg Monarchy (Austria)
Early Modern Frg
- Duchy of Prussia, Kingdom of Prussia
- Duchy of Bavaria, Electorate of Bavaria
- Electorate of the Palatinate
Tsardom of Russia, Russian Empire
Early on Modern Sweden
Denmark-Norway
Early Modern Romania
Polish–Lithuanian Republic
Kingdom of Republic of hungary

See likewise [edit]

Renaissance
International relations 1648-1814
Early Modern warfare
Scientific Revolution
Age of Discovery
Protestant Reformation
Catholic Counter-Reformation
Thirty Years' War
Age of Enlightenment

References [edit]

^ "Trent, Quango of" in Cross, F. Fifty. (ed.) The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church building, Oxford University Press, 2005 (ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3).
^ Quoted in Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church Archived Baronial thirteen, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
^ Kenneth Yard. Appold, The Reformation: A Brief History (2011) online
^ Andrew Johnston, The protestant reformation in Europe (Routledge, 2014).
^ For a wide range of causes see Thou.R. Elton, ed. The New Cambridge Modernistic History, Vol. two: The Reformation, 1520–1559 (1st ed. 1958) online
^ George Huntston Williams, The Radical Reformation (tertiary ed, 2000).
^ A.D. Wright, The Counter-Reformation: Catholic Europe and the Non-Christian World (Ashgate, 2005).
^ A.1000. Dickens, The English Reformation (1991).
^ Patrick Collinson, The Reformation: A History (2006)
^ Margaret C. Jacob (1991). Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe. p. 215. ISBN9780199762798.
^ Bax, Ernest Belfort. "Gracchus Babeuf and the Conspiracy of the Equals", 1911 [1], accessed June 12, 2011.
^ John A. Mears, "The Emergence Of The Standing Professional Army In Seventeenth-Century Europe," Social Science Quarterly (1969) 50#1 pp. 106-115 in JSTOR
^ Frederick L. Nussbaum, The triumph of science and reason, 1660-1685 (1953) pp 147-48.
^ "History of Europe – Demographics". Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Cross, (ed.) "Westphalia, Peace of" Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church
^ Norman Davies, Europe: A History (1996) p 593-94.
^ Hamish Scott, book review in English Historical Review (Oct 2013) pp 1239-1241.
^ J.R. Jones, United kingdom and the Globe: 1649-1815 (1980), pp 38-39.
^ Gaston Zeller, "French diplomacy and foreign policy in their European setting." in Carsten, ed., The New Cambridge Modernistic History vol 5 (1961) p 198-99, 206.
^ Charles W. Ingrao, The Hessian mercenary country: ideas, institutions, and reform nether Frederick II, 1760-1785 (2003).
^ Davies, Europe (1996) pp 581-82.
^ Edward Gaylord Bourne, The History and Determination of the Line of Demarcation Established past Pope Alexander 6 Betwixt the Spanish and Portuguese Fields of Discovery and Colonization (1892) online in Gutenberg.org.
^ Tracy, James D. (1993). The Rising of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350–1750. Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN978-0-521-45735-4.
^ Lynch, John. Bourbon Kingdom of spain, 1700-1808. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers 1989, p. 21.
^ Schwaller, John F., "Patronato Real" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Civilisation vol. 4, pp. 323–24.
^ Mecham, J. Lloyd, Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations, revised edition. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1966, pp. 4–six.
^ Haring, Clarence, The Spanish Empire in America. New York: Oxford University Press 1947, pp. 181–82.
^ "Ancien Authorities", Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modernistic World, The Gale Grouping Inc., 2004, retrieved 26 February 2017 – via Encyclopedia.com
^ See William Doyle, ed. The Oxford Handbook of the Ancien Régime (2012) 656pp extract and text search.
^ Major 1994, pp. 20–xxi harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMajor1994 (help)
^ Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, The Ancien Authorities: A History of France 1610–1774 (1999), political survey excerpt and text search.
^ D. M. Palliser, The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors, 1547–1603 (1983)
^ Barry Coward, and Peter Gaunt. The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714 (fifth ed. 2017), excerpt
^ Godfrey Davies, The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660 (Oxford Upwards, 1959).

Referred literature [edit]

Rice, Eugene, F., Jr. (1970). The Foundations of Early Mod Europe: 1460-1559. W.West. Norton & Co.
John Coffey (2000), Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558-1689, Studies in Modern History, Pearson Pedagogy
Benjamin J. Kaplan (2007), Divided by Organized religion. Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press
Joseph Southward. Freedman (1999), Philosophy and the Arts in Key Europe, 1500–1700: Didactics and Texts at Schools and Universities Aldershot: Ashgate

External links [edit]

Give-and-take of the medieval/modern transition, from the introduction to the pioneering Cambridge Modern History (1903)
Social club for Renaissance Studies

laportehouseenjut.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_Europe